American National Govenment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American National Govenment - Essay Example In political realms, immigration reform refers to changes in recurrent immigration policy of a country. Immigration reforms in political sense can involve promoted, open immigration and also eliminated immigration which can also be reduced. The immigration regime existing was designed in 1952 to 1965 with the primary goal of allowing nuclear and extended family reunification and the secondary goals of permitting humanitarian admissions and necessary labor inflows. Today’s reform system differs from the one of decades ago because of changing technology, dwindling costs of beyond border travelling and many years of past migratory flows which have made these flows more complicated and hard to deal with. Border protection, anti-terrorism and illegal immigration Control Act of 2005 was passed by the House of Representatives. The US senate passed the comprehensive immigration reform act of 2006 but neither bill was made law because their differences could not be resolved in the conf erence committee. The issues to address in the bills were; to fix border enforcement, enforcement of interior such as doing away with visa overstays, people being prevented from working with no work permit, a committee being created to be in charge of adopting the number of visas available to economic times that fluctuates (Smith & Edmonston, 1997). A number of changes are recommended in the immigration reforms. First, a change to the temporary admissions and legal permanent systems to encourage the recruitment and retention of the immigrants best able to add value to the United States national interests in immigration. Secondly, Institutional and regulatory structure change governing the integration and employment of immigrants within the US to make sure that immigrants make the largest possible contribution while reducing possible costs of movement. Others include increase adoption of immigration as foreign policy tool, and changes to the immigration control policies. According to Smith and Edmonston (1997), effective reform must require those living in the US without permission to register, be good pay masters of tax, have knowledge of English, background checks be completed and earn the full rights of a true citizen. Eventually, the country benefits from increased and expanded tax base, a fully functional rule of law, a less vulnerable workforce to exploitation and a level playing field for all workers. A tough and fair immigration reform will most likely restore order and control at the border. Additionally, I believe immigration reform is preferred because it greatly improves the US GDP by at least 0.84 percent. The increase in GDP due to immigration, in addition to benefiting the citizens throughout the country, will be vital among the labor-intensive sectors such as construction, electronic equipment and textiles industries. Furthermore, comprehensive immigration reforms increases wages for all workers and improves their working conditions. The Cap-n-T rade legislation (climate change reform) is almost the only way to regulate carbon dioxide emissions. Cap-n-trade is targeted at reducing carbon dioxide emissions at a politically determined level among the users and producers of oil, natural gas and coal. Primarily the legislation seeks to impose a switch among users to alternative, less

Breast Cancer Essay Example for Free

Breast Cancer Essay Cristian Davalos 2nd Period There are many different types of breast cancer. For example, breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast like the ducts, the lobules, or in some cases, the tissue in between. In this essay I will explain the different types of breast cancer. I will also talk about the symptoms many women have when they get breast cancer. Then I will explain the treatments for breast cancer, and the alternative treatments. First of all, there are two main types of breast cancer invasive, and non-invasive, which means if the cancer is only in your breast or spreading out to other body parts. The first type is Ductal Carcinoma which is a non-invasive breast cancer where abnormal cells have been contained in the lining of the breast milk duct. The second type is Invasive Ductal Carcinoma which means that abnormal cells that originated in the lining of the breast milk duct have invaded surrounding tissue. The third type is Triple Negative Breast cancer which means that the cells in the tumor are negative for progesterone, estrogen, and HER2/neu receptors. The fourth type is Inflammatory Breast Cancer which is a less common form of breast cancer that may not develop a tumor and often affects the skin. The fifth type is Metastatic Breast Cancer which is cancer that has spread beyond the breast, sometimes into the lungs, bones, or brain. The sixth type is breast cancer during pregnancy; women who are diagnosed with breast cancer during pregnancy may face tremendous additional strain due to concern for the safety of the unborn child. There are also other types that are less common which include Medullary Carcinoma, Tubular Carcinoma, and Mucinous Carcinoma. Next, the symptoms women get before the actually get breast cancer. Some women may get a lump in the breast or underarm that persists after your menstrual cycle. This is usually the first apparent symptom of breast cancer. Most all lumps associated with breast cancer are usually painless, but in some cases it may cause a prickly sensation. Another symptom is swelling in the armpit, pain or tenderness in the breast. Also any change in the size, contour, texture, or temperature of the breast, a reddish, pitted surface like the skin of an orange could be a sign of advanced breast cancer. In some cases a change in the nipple, such as a nipple retraction, dimpling, itching, a burning sensation, or ulceration, or a scaly rash of the breast may be associated with an underlying breast cancer. Finally, the treatments of breast cancer have two major goals, which are to rid the body of the cancer as completely as possible, and to prevent cancer from returning. One treatment is Chemotherapy which uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Another type is Hormone therapy such as tamoxifen in premenopausal and postmenopausal women and the aromatase inhibitors arimidex, aromasin, and femara in postmenopausal women. Hormone therapy uses drugs to prevent hormones, especially estrogen, from promoting the growth of breast cancer cells that may remain after breast cancer surgery. Also, another treatment is biological therapy such as Herceptin, Perjeta, or Tykerb, which work by using the bodys immune system to destroy cancer cells. These drugs target breast cancer cells that have high levels of a protein called HER2. Alternative types of breast cancer treatments are lumpectomy surgery to remove a tumor and a small amount of normal tissue around it. Also another alternative treatment is partial mastectomy surgery which is to remove the part of the breast that has cancer and some normal tissue around it. The lining over the chest muscles below the cancer may also be removed. This procedure is also called a segmental mastectomy. Another treatment is total mastectomy, is surgery to remove the whole breast that has cancer. This procedure is also called a simple mastectomy. The last alternative treatment is modified radical mastectomy surgery which is to remove the whole breast that has cancer, many of the lymph nodes under the arm, the lining over the chest muscles, and sometimes, part of the chest wall muscles. In conclusion, as you may see there are many types of breast cancer and also a whole lot of treatments, as well as alternative treatments. References http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/types http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/breast-cancer/HQ00348 http://www. nationalbreastcancer. org/types-of-breast-cancer http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/guide/breast-cancer-treatment http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page5

Gender Discrimination at Walmart Essay -- Walmart Sex Discrimination

Walmart, the world’s largest retailer and private employer, has established a highly profitable business centered on a low-cost strategy that utilizes logistical efficiencies to create a competitive advantage. Yet, to maintain this low-cost strategy, Walmart has engaged in ethically questionable practices, including gender discrimination in promotion and pay. While the Supreme Court recently ruled against class certification of 1.5 million women in the Dukes v. Walmart case due to a lack of proof that Walmart operated under a â€Å"general policy of discrimination†, overwhelming evidence demonstrates that gender discrimination is a persistent problem rooted in the culture of Walmart, despite gender-neutral policies (Biskupic, 2011). During the 1950’s and 60’s in northwest Arkansas, a surplus of unskilled labor existed due to â€Å"increasing mechanization of agricultural work†. Leveraging this pent up demand for employment, Sam Walton, the founder of Walmart, provided these agricultural men with prideful responsibilities as managers of his retail stores, while employing their wives and daughters as low wage clerks (Lichenstein, 2011). Forty to fifty years later, in an economy sagged by high unemployment, particularly among an unskilled, low educated workforce, the practice of promoting men to run stores while women are forced to settle for low wage labor remains prevalent at Walmart. In fact, statistical analysis from plaintiffs in the 2001 Dukes v. Walmart lawsuit showed that women comprised nearly 70% of hourly employees, but only 33% of management positions (Hymowitz, 2011). The overwhelming disparities between men and women in management relative to the proportion of those in hourly posi tions further cements the continual existence ... ...three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616-642. doi:10.1037/a0023557 Lichenstein, N. (2011) Wal-Mart’s Authoritarian Culture. New York Times Lichenstein, N. (2007) Why Working at Walmart is Different Connecticut Law Review, Volume 39 Number 4, May 2007 Powell, G., Butterfield, D., and Bartol, K. (2008). Leader evaluations: A new female advantage? Gender in Management: An International Journal, 23, 156-174. Rosette, A., & Tost, L. (2010). Agentic women and communal leadership: How role prescriptions confer advantage to top women leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(2), 221-235. doi:10.1037/a0018204 Wal-Mart Class Website. (2011). â€Å"Declaration Summaries†. Retrieved from 22 Nov 2011 The official site for the women in the class action Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Gender Discrimination at Walmart Essay -- Walmart Sex Discrimination Walmart, the world’s largest retailer and private employer, has established a highly profitable business centered on a low-cost strategy that utilizes logistical efficiencies to create a competitive advantage. Yet, to maintain this low-cost strategy, Walmart has engaged in ethically questionable practices, including gender discrimination in promotion and pay. While the Supreme Court recently ruled against class certification of 1.5 million women in the Dukes v. Walmart case due to a lack of proof that Walmart operated under a â€Å"general policy of discrimination†, overwhelming evidence demonstrates that gender discrimination is a persistent problem rooted in the culture of Walmart, despite gender-neutral policies (Biskupic, 2011). During the 1950’s and 60’s in northwest Arkansas, a surplus of unskilled labor existed due to â€Å"increasing mechanization of agricultural work†. Leveraging this pent up demand for employment, Sam Walton, the founder of Walmart, provided these agricultural men with prideful responsibilities as managers of his retail stores, while employing their wives and daughters as low wage clerks (Lichenstein, 2011). Forty to fifty years later, in an economy sagged by high unemployment, particularly among an unskilled, low educated workforce, the practice of promoting men to run stores while women are forced to settle for low wage labor remains prevalent at Walmart. In fact, statistical analysis from plaintiffs in the 2001 Dukes v. Walmart lawsuit showed that women comprised nearly 70% of hourly employees, but only 33% of management positions (Hymowitz, 2011). The overwhelming disparities between men and women in management relative to the proportion of those in hourly posi tions further cements the continual existence ... ...three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616-642. doi:10.1037/a0023557 Lichenstein, N. (2011) Wal-Mart’s Authoritarian Culture. New York Times Lichenstein, N. (2007) Why Working at Walmart is Different Connecticut Law Review, Volume 39 Number 4, May 2007 Powell, G., Butterfield, D., and Bartol, K. (2008). Leader evaluations: A new female advantage? Gender in Management: An International Journal, 23, 156-174. Rosette, A., & Tost, L. (2010). Agentic women and communal leadership: How role prescriptions confer advantage to top women leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(2), 221-235. doi:10.1037/a0018204 Wal-Mart Class Website. (2011). â€Å"Declaration Summaries†. Retrieved from 22 Nov 2011 The official site for the women in the class action Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.

The Linguistic Situation of South Africa :: essays research papers fc

When it comes to linguistics, South Africa is like a melting pot of languages. In total, South Africa has eleven major languages coming from both Africa and Europe. The major languages used are Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Pedi, Sesotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa and Zulu. In order to understand how each of these languages arrived in South Africa, we must first look at the history of people living in the country. The first identified language spoken in the South Africa was Khoisan. This language was spoken by the indigenous people of South Africa, the Khoikhio, who lived mainly in the southern coastal regions of the country. Over the years this language has slowly faded away along with the native Khoikhio people. Today there are only a few native South Africans left who can still speak Khoisan living in the western sections of the country.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some time around the eighth century many Bantu tribes migrated south from central Africa into the northern territories of South Africa. Each of these Bantu tribes brought with them their own distinct Bantu language—nine of which still remain and are recognized today as official languages by the South African Government. These languages are used throughout the African population, which makes up three quarters of South Africa’s people. These languages include: Sesotho, Tsonga, Pedi, Tswana, Venda; and the Nguni group of Bantu languages: Xhosa, Ndebele, Swazi, and Zulu.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the present, Zulu is the Bantu language with the largest number of speakers. In KwaZulu and Natal there are nine million people that speak this language. Falling right behind with seven million speakers is the language of Xhosa. Xhosa can be found around Transei, Ciskei, and on the Eastern Cape. The official language of Swaziland is Swazi with two million speakers. The last Nguni language is Ndebele, which is spoken by half a million people in some northeastern parts of South Africa. Between the four separate Nguni languages there are 12 different dialects. Pedi and Sesotho are both a part of the Sotho group of Bantu Languages and they share 11 different dialects. Pedi is the strongest language in the Sotho group. Pedi has four million speakers all over the country. Three million people in Qwaqwa and Orange Free State speak Sesotho. Tsonga, which has four dialects, has four million speakers living in Mozambique and Swaziland. Tswana spoken in Botswana has aroun d three million speakers. Venda, spoken mainly in Transvaal, has over half a million speakers.

Modern Ethical Theories

Philosophically Egoism theory purports that one’s self is or should be the motivation and reasons of our own actions.   This theory has two variations, descriptive or normative variation and altruism variation.   Altruism variation holds that one should maximize good for all being in the world (Hobbes, 1651).   Altruism is the opposite of egoism. Ethical egoism is a normative theory that revolves around the idea that each individual should do what is entirely in his or her self interests and by doing actions that aimed at self interest he or she achieves morality.   The theory states that one’s self interest is the primary motive of actions and is the moral thing to do. Hence the theory is a self effacing theory which tries to justify reasons for actions as duty bound or morally right. Psychological egoism theory on the other hand is a descriptive theory that describes human actions as wholly motivated by self interest it implies that individual’s actions are purely by self centered even though the actions may seem to be motivated by interest of others (More, G.E., 1903).   It states that, â€Å"all human actions are selfish acts at their roots†. Thus it asserts that if individual helps others, acts which may seem to be of benefit to others.   The primary motive may be the need for an individual to better him/herself thus making the act self-seeking.   It is impossible to empirically prove the psychological egoism theory wrong but it is just as hard to empirically prove the theory right.   In addition once the premise of the theory is accepted the actions can be interpreted to support the theory. Fallacy of Psychological Egoism Psychological egoism theory states that people are always motivated by their own interests.   This   however hastily   generalizes actions and their motivation   since there are instances we can disapprove this such as, when an individual smokes .this is an act that can be harmful to one’s wellbeing thus not act in   self interest, others such as soldiers carry out their duties without considering personal gains. There are also instances where motivations to act may appear to be of no self interest   at face value but   are nevertheless self interest motivated (Rachels, J., 2003).   For example if an individual is motivated to act out of fear or his acts are motivated by fear, he/she may be acting in the interest of self-preservation. On the other hand, these actions/reactions may be driven by the interest of the other individual or threats from this other individual thus his/her action may be classified as an action motivated for other’s interest.   In this case, the individual actions are what she/he is motivated to do, for instance run. The strong and weak versions of Ethical Egoism The ethical egoism can be split into two versions; the strong and the weak versions.   The strong version supports the endorsement of an individual’s own good as the moral thing to do.   Individual actions that are driven by self-interest or self fulfillment arise out of moral judgement while the weak version supports the premise that there are situations where it may be prudent to ignore personal welfare when making moral judgement (Rachels, J., 2003). For instance if a soldier lies on a grenade to save his friends he may act this way to be able to live with himself In other words if he acted otherwise he may live the rest of his life with a guilty conscience .However the strong version might interpret this action as the moral thing to do. Contrast in Motivation Doctrines of the two theories Psychological egoism theory is the empirical doctrine that an individual’s act is a desire for one’s own welfare (Sigmund, F., 1966).   However, these acts usually conceal the determining motives.   This concealment is usually in their self-interest.   The theory results from observation of human behaviour and can only be proved empirically if there are no exceptions.   It makes no claim to how individuals should act for their self-interest.   This premise can be argued to be verifiable but non-moral. On the other hand, the ethical egoism theory is prescriptive doctrine that individuals actions are in self-interest that is for personal welfare thus the personal welfare is the most valuable thing for an individual.   However, the theory does not claim that all individuals seek their own self interest.   It only claims that individuals should seek their own self-interest that is all individual might not seek self-interest (Sigmund, F., 1966).   For the ethical egoism theory to hold or to be proven as a theory its premises must hold for all individuals. Differences between ethical egoism and psychological egoism Psychological egoism is descriptive while the ethical egoism theory is prescriptive, that is, the psychological theory states why individuals act the way they do while the ethical theory suggests the reasons for such.   The other difference is concerned with their motivation doctrines.   In psychological egoism it is human nature to be driven by selfish reasons whereas in the ethical egoism theory selfish acts are the morally right thing to do (More, G.E., 1903).Psychological egoism deals with reality while ethical egoism deals with what reality should be. It   can also be argued that ethical egoism approves of cooperative behaviour   while psychological egoism does not since the theory   believes in achieving maximum welfare though selfish actions . Conclusion Self-interest actions are not always selfish actions in that one can act in such a way as to benefit or for his personal welfare improvement.   Such actions cannot be termed as selfish and this is always seen as acts out of self-interest.   Self-interest acts are not always selfish acts but selfish actions are always out of personal self-interest. For example if an individual’s self interest is to obey the law we can claim the individual is doing this out of self interest, that is, it is in his/her self interest to avoid legal troubles like being jailed.   This can be seen as a selfish act.   But by obeying the law, it can also be argued that he is doing this in the interest of others or out of consideration of others.   In this case, this is not a selfish act.   However, self-interest actions are not always incompatible with the interest of others for example to help others, which is not a self-interest act.   An individual must first help himself inorder to be in a position to help others. Reference G.E. Moore (1903).   In Principia Ethica: Cambridge University Press. Rachels, J. (2003). The Elements of moral philosophy (4th ed). New York: McGraw-Hill. Sigmund, Freud (1966).   The Interpretation of Dreams.   New York: Avon.   

What is an Unreliable Narrator Definition and 6 Real Examples

What is an Unreliable Narrator Definition and 6 Real Examples What is an Unreliable Narrator: Definition and Examples In literature, an unreliable narrator is a character who tells a story with a lack of credibility. There are different types of unreliable narrators (more on that later), and the presence of one can be revealed to readers in varying ways - sometimes immediately, sometimes gradually, and sometimes later in the story when a plot twist leaves us wondering if we’ve maybe been a little too trusting.While the term â€Å"unreliable narrator† was first coined by literary critic Wayne C. Booth in his 1961 book, The Rhetoric of Fiction, it’s a literary device that writers have been putting to good use for much longer than the past 80 years. For example, "The Tell-Tale Heart" published by Edgar Allan Poe in 1843 utilizes this storytelling tool, as does Wuthering Heights, published in 1847.But wait, is any narrator really reliable?This discussion can lead us down a proverbial rabbit hole. In a sense, no, there aren’t any 100% completely reliable narrators. The  "Rashomon Effect† tells us that our subjective perceptions prohibit us from ever having a totally clear memory of past events. If each person subjectively remembers something that happened, how do we know who is right? "Indeed, many writers have used the Rashomon Effect to tell stories from multiple first-person perspectives - leaving readers to determine whose record is most believable." (Check out As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner for an example).For the purpose of this article, however, we will refer to narrators who are purposefully unreliable for a specific narrative function. How to write an unreliable narrator that has us on our toes and reading between the lines. Literary function of an unreliable narratorFiction that makes us question our own perceptions can be powerful. An unreliable narrator can create a lot of grey areas and blur the lines of reality, allowing us to come to our own conclusions.Fallible storytellers can also create tension by keeping readers on their toes - wondering if there’s more under the surface, and reading between the lines to decipher what that is. Unreliable  narrators can make for intriguing, complex characters: depending on the narrator’s motivation for clouding the truth, readers may also feel more compelled to keep reading to figure out why the narrator is hiding things.Finally, all unreliable narrators are first-person: they live in the world of the story and will have an inherent bias or perhaps even an agenda. While you may find an unreliable narrator who's written in the second-person or third-person point of view, this is generally rare.PRO-TIP: If you'd like to see the different point of views in action, check out this post that has 50+ point of view examples.Types of unreliable narratorsJust like trying to classify every type of character would be an endless pursuit, so is trying to list every type of unreliable narrator. That said, we've divided these questionable raconteurs into three general types to better understand how they work as a literary device.1) Deliberately Unreliable: Narrators who are aware of their deceptionThis type of narrator is intentionally lying to the reader because, well, they can. They have your attention, the point of view is theirs, and they’ll choose what to do with it, regardless of any â€Å"responsibility† they might have to the reader. (The film adaptation of Room, image: Universal Pictures)Forrest Gump by Winston Groom Forrest is another example of a narrator who’s not deliberately unreliable in order to pull the wool over the readers’ eyes or to â€Å"save face.† From the outset, we are aware that Forrest doesn’t comprehend things like the â€Å"average† person does, and we’re aware that we might not be able to take everything he says at face value. This is confirmed when Forrest begins detailing his life, which is peppered with stories about major events from history that he was apparently intimately involved in. We can’t be certain that he’s not telling the truth, but it would be quite the life if he is. Six examples of unreliable narrators and how to write your own fallible storyteller. An unreliable narrator breaks the conventional relationship of trust between a reader and a storyteller. However, the key is that you don’t want to shatter that trust entirely, because you’re likely to lose the reader. Ensure your unreliable narrator has a clear purpose for being unreliable, employ just enough mist around the narrator’s accounts to put question marks in our minds, give us the underlying sense that there’s more to the story, and you’ll be able to foster a connection between the reader and narrator that has the pages of your book flipping.Who are some of your favorite unreliable narrators from literature? Have you ever tried writing one yourself? Leave any thoughts or questions in the comments below!

Free Essays on Debbie Style

As the world grows so do our challenges. Not only are our problems growing in number but they are also growing in complexity. There is scarcely a day that goes by when I don't hear about some new problem that will soon threaten us all. While some of these problems such as El Nino, earthquakes, and other natural disasters cannot be stopped there are other challenges such as the spread of racial hatred, rising risk of disease spread, and the growing levels of civil unrest throughout much of the world which threaten many lives everyday. Most of the future's challenges will only be made possible if all people, regardless of race, color, or nationality, attempt to work together for a stronger world. There are many ways in which I believe that I can help society meet this future challenge of coming together as a united world. While I was an exchange student, I saw the world from a different point of view. For the first time, I realized that the people of the world have so many similarities in comparison to the few and insignificant differences. To make the people of the world unite would merely take time in convincing people of the world that we are all in pursuit of the same basic goals. All that it would take to show that this could be done is two different cultures to unite and then the rest of the world what can come by the strength all gain by coming together. I believe that I can help in solving some of the barriers that hold us back from completing the task that we all desire which is unity. I served as a miniature version of a diplomat when I was an exchange student. I helped people in another country see that we all have common goals and I also helped sever the bonds to racial hatred by providing them insight into the American way of thinking and they did likewise for me. I have done everything to help sever these ancient bonds and will continue to do so in the future as I feel I am ca... Free Essays on Debbie Style Free Essays on Debbie Style As the world grows so do our challenges. Not only are our problems growing in number but they are also growing in complexity. There is scarcely a day that goes by when I don't hear about some new problem that will soon threaten us all. While some of these problems such as El Nino, earthquakes, and other natural disasters cannot be stopped there are other challenges such as the spread of racial hatred, rising risk of disease spread, and the growing levels of civil unrest throughout much of the world which threaten many lives everyday. Most of the future's challenges will only be made possible if all people, regardless of race, color, or nationality, attempt to work together for a stronger world. There are many ways in which I believe that I can help society meet this future challenge of coming together as a united world. While I was an exchange student, I saw the world from a different point of view. For the first time, I realized that the people of the world have so many similarities in comparison to the few and insignificant differences. To make the people of the world unite would merely take time in convincing people of the world that we are all in pursuit of the same basic goals. All that it would take to show that this could be done is two different cultures to unite and then the rest of the world what can come by the strength all gain by coming together. I believe that I can help in solving some of the barriers that hold us back from completing the task that we all desire which is unity. I served as a miniature version of a diplomat when I was an exchange student. I helped people in another country see that we all have common goals and I also helped sever the bonds to racial hatred by providing them insight into the American way of thinking and they did likewise for me. I have done everything to help sever these ancient bonds and will continue to do so in the future as I feel I am ca...

The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer †Earth Science Essay

The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer – Earth Science Essay Free Online Research Papers The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer Earth Science Essay This essay will take two contrasting case studies, global warming and the ozone layer, to show both the successes and failures that have so far been gained in dealing with this issue. The political economy of the two case studies will be analysed from the three main theoretical points which will aim to explain why the main state actors acted as they did or did not. 2. Global Environmental Degradation 2.1 Definition Environmental degradation is the transformation of an ecosystem in a negative manner that affects the conditions and/or the quality and quantity of flora/fauna in the ecosystem (Held et al. 2000:377). Due to the interlinked nature of ecosystems, when the natural ecology of an area is destroyed, the environment will also be altered. For example, over farming can lead to the desertification of once arable land and excessive urbanisation can cause an increase in flooding. This degradation can occur on a local, transnational or global scale. At the local level fly tipping in rural woodland will only have an impact on the immediate area. At the transnational level are the problems of cross boundary pollution, for example the accusation by Scandinavian countries that a large proportion of the acid rain falling on their countries originates from industrial outputs from the UK (ITE 1997:80). At the global level are problems that affect what are known as the global commons. The are reso urces that are considered to be the common ownership of humanity, upon which no state can have a sole claim to sovereignty or authority over them, for example the atmosphere or the ocean beds (Held et al 2000:378). Global environmental degradation is therefore any process that affects these environmental global commons in a negative manner. 2.2 Forms Mainly due to restrictions of space this essay will be concerned with global environmental degradation issues. However, this is also the area of study that has resulted in a significant area of both international cooperation and conflict, demonstrated by the successes, and failures, of the many international regimes established to attempt to deal with the problems. Regardless of ones view on whether globalization is a new distinct phenomenon or not (Held 2000:10), it is clearly the case that global environmental degradation on the current scale is the product of the globalization of commerce and industrialisation. At the dawn of the industrial revolution environmental degradation was mainly localised, for example the â€Å"pea-soup† fogs caused by coal burning in Victorian England (Hunt 2004). As industrialisation has spread around the world and increased in density in the developed world so has environmental damage (Vig 1999:1). It is also a significant area to study due to the inherently economic and political nature of the causes and perpetuation of the problem. The issue of global environmental degradation is one that has been discussed in many disciplines, from the natural sciences through to social science disciplines such as Security Studies and International Relations (cf Buzan et al 1998). The globalization of environmental degradation has widened the range of the problem, indeed it has now arguably become all humanities problem rather than just a few, however due to both geography and economics, the burdens of global warming will not be distributed equally among humanity as is discussed below (Ross Blackmore 1991:175) 2.2 A brief history of global responses Since global environmental degradation first crept onto the international agenda in the seventies there have been numerous attempts at setting up solid international regimes to help to combat the problem, the most significant being the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972 (Greene 2001:390). This was established as a result of the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment and aimed to establish a coordinated multinational effort to recognise and attempt to solve problems of environmental degradation at all levels and to conceptualise environmental damage in the context of development. (ibid.). There have also sprung up numerous NGO groups since then, for example Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace founded in 1969 and 1971 respectively (FOE 2004; Greenpeace 2004 ). Despite this progress reaching a global consensus on how to prevent damage to the global commons has been slow. 3. Case Study #1: The depletion of the ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol 3.1 The Ozone Layer and CFCs Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen with one electron in its outer shell, making it highly reactive, that is found in the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere. It is formed when radiation from the sun splits oxygen atoms (O2) into individual molecules, which then bond with O2 atoms to form O3 (Blackmore 1996:90). Ozone plays a vital part in the atmosphere by absorbing radiation from the sun and keeping the temperature on the Earth so that it can support life. At present under ideal conditions the amount of ozone in the stratosphere is about 10 parts per million per volume (ACDR 2003). Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a wide family of man made inert chemical gasses composed of chlorine, fluorine and carbon (Hardy 2003:18). When they were discovered in the 1930s they were believed to be the ideal gasses for refrigeration, propellants in aerosols, industrial solvents and for making foamed plastics due to their stable, non-flammable and non-toxic properties (Blackmore 1996:70). It is only when they are released into the atmosphere that they become a problem; as CFCs are lighter than air they rise high into the atmosphere when released. It is when they reach the layer of ozone in the stratosphere that problems occur. In the stratosphere they are broken down by radiation from the sun, causing a chemical reaction to take place that destroys ozone. Due to the stable nature of the halon molecules from CFCs they are not destroyed; one molecule of chlorine for example can destroy 100,000 ozone ones (Hardy 2003:18). This process is only limited by the amount of chlorine a toms available in the atmosphere and destroys ozone at a much higher rate than nature can create it, resulting in depletion of the protective ozone layer (ACDR 2003). Depletion of the ozone layer on a large scale would result in the planet becoming increasingly hotter, causing a rise in skin cancer, cataracts and damage to crops, amongst other effects (Thomas 1992:207). 3.2 International Response Concern first arose over the damage that CFCs may cause to the ozone layer in the 1970s in the US. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) after a long and protracted struggle with chemical manufactures led by DuPont, banned the use of all CFCs except for essential uses such as refrigeration (Greene 2001:402). In 1984 it was discovered that there was massive loss in the atmospheric ozone over Antarctica each spring, which became known as the â€Å"ozone hole†. By 1988 it had been proven conclusively by science that this was due to CFC release into the atmosphere and that the problem would continue for as long they were discharged into the atmosphere (Blackmore 1996:71). Other developed states soon followed suite (ACDR 2003). The first international regime aimed at dealing with the problem of ozone depletion was the 1985 Vienna Convention which established a framework for solving the issue (Molitor 1999:222) after widespread publicity and concern over the effect of CFC s. The Montreal Protocol of 1989 was the result of the Vienna Convention. Under the Protocol CFC usage was to be reduced by 50% by the year 2000 (Greene 2001:401). . Most states were persuaded to join, though developing states, led by China and India, were only persuaded to join once a Multilateral Fund was established by the industrialized states to pay the incremental costs occurred by the Protocol. The Protocol has been the subject of many amendments and the date of phasing out CFCs was moved forwards eventually to 1996 for developed countries and 2010 for developing countries (UNEP 2003). The ozone hole issue was easily solved due a combination of science, economics and politics. International cooperation to limit the damage to the ozone layer has been a major success; with ozone depleting substances (ODS) now believed to be at their peak in the stratosphere. Due to the long life time of CFCs already in the stratosphere there will be an estimated lag time of up to a decade before the ozone layer is at its full natural level (UNEP 2003:4.3). Figure 1 shows the global decrease in CFC production. The EU and the US had both phased out their stocks of CFCs by 1996, although the developing world proved more difficult (Greene 2001:401). The MLF established by the richer states at the Montreal Protocol was the most important method by which developing states were helped to cease production. In addition to the MLF a programme of technology transfer was established (Parson 1995:50). The MLF was administered by an executive committee consisting of representatives from each region on the planet and operates through the World Bank, UNEP and the UN Development Program (ibid.). Figure 1 4. Case Study #2: Global Warming and the Kyoto Protocol 4.1 The Greenhouse Effect and human contribution to it The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, and 0.93% argon, however it is the trace gasses which constitute only the tiny remaining percentage of the atmosphere that most affect climate (Hardy 2003:3). The main trace substances in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (ibid. p5), known as greenhouse gasses due to their role in the greenhouse effect. As the sun’s energy travels through the Earth’s atmosphere, 26% of the energy is reflected back into space by clouds and particles in the atmosphere. 19% is absorbed by clouds and gasses in the atmosphere and 4% is reflected off the surface off the Earth (Gow Pidwiny 1996). Only approximately 51% of the suns energy is transferred to the surface of the earth where it causes photosynthesis, heats the ground etc. When the radiation from the sun is absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere i t reduces the wavelength of the radiation reaching the ground. This is a vital part of the global ecosystem, without it the planet would be devoid of life; however it is human agency that is causing the present day problem by amplifying the natural effect (Fraser 2003). As a result the radiation reradiated from the earth is of a lot shorter wavelength, and gets trapped by the atmosphere, producing an insulating effect. This effect is shown in figure 2. Figure 2 4.2 International Response Although the greenhouse effect is a vital natural occurrence, there is strong scientific evidence that human agency, especially due to industrialization is increasing the amount of greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere. This has the effect of thus increasing the greenhouse effect beyond its natural levels, causing the planet to warm up (Ross Blackmore 1991:149; Greene 2001:404; Held et al 2000:384). Through the seventies and eighties there were many international programmes and agreements established, though none of major significance until the agreement in 1989 that there should be an â€Å"Earth Summit† in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Green 2001:393). In 1990 the United Nations Environment Program set up the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which published Policymakers Summary of the Scientific Assessment of Climate Change, the first scientific report of international significance to acknowledge the problem. The opening page of the report stated. â€Å"these increases [in the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere] will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in additional warming of the Earth’s surface† (cited in Thomas 1992: 157-158) At the Rio conference all the states present agreed upon a set of principals and aims, including the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to combat ozone depletion and global warming (Green 2001:405). Under article 2 of the Convention states were committed to achieving stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentration that would contribute to global warming (NEF 2003:2). The next summit was at Kyoto where states agreed to implement the principals agreed at Rio. The â€Å"Kyoto Protocol† as this became known included an agreement that states would work to lower their greenhouse gas emissions, which aimed to become legally binding once ratified by the signatory states (ibid. p408). Annex I countries (OECD states plus selected former Soviet Bloc states) were to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012 (NEF 2003:2). The treaty was ratified by the EU but significantly not by the US, Russia or Australia (ibid.) A system of emissions t rading was also proposed, however there was no agreement on mandatory limitations due to US disagreement, as such the list of targets was just seen as recommendations (ibid. p229), resulting in the treaty getting off to a weak start. The extent and rate of global warming is still debated in the scientific community as some claim it may be no more than a natural cycle in the Earth’s climate, however there is near universal agreement that the release of greenhouse gasses into the environment is worsening the problem (Beckerman 1992:pp254-255). There is also uncertainty about the rate and extent at which global warming will occur, a factor that has hindered political efforts to combat the problem (Hodge 1995:175; Lomborg 1998:pp258-323). In addition to debate over the nature of global warming the political and economic arguments concerning global warming are also still on-going. Problems concerning global environmental degradation have proved difficult to solve due to the issues of free-riding and the so-called â€Å"tragedy of the commons†. These two concepts, explained below, have hindered many of the attempts at making progress on global environmental issues and will need to be overcome for the universal good of humanity. 4.3 Costs and difficulties with climate control There is little doubt that combating climate change would be an expensive measure for all (Pakerr 2002). The two most commonly suggested solutions are a tax on CO2 output or a system of tradable permits (ibid.). Levying a tax on CO2 output has been one of the most widely suggest proposals for dealing with the problem (Paarlberg 1999: 242). This would act as an incentive on industry to develop greener technologies and would provide governments with the income to assist with developing greener environmental policies (Hodge 1995:184). However the knock on effects of such a tax would be unevenly distributed. The price of all fossil fuels would rise not just for industry, but for individuals as well. As those on lower incomes generally spend a higher proportion of their incomes on energy it would affect them significantly more than it would industry (ibid. p185). In order to prevent capital flight from states implementing such a policy it would have to be a co-coordinated global ef fort, otherwise the first states to impose such a policy will find their industry simply relocates to states that do not have carbon taxes. States are also likely to find it hard to pass such a proposal due to lobbying by business (Paarlberg 1999:242). If this solution was attempted at a global level it would undoubtedly be very difficult to achieve. A key reason for this is the argument by developing states that they should not be penalized for a problem that was created until recently almost exclusively by the industrialized West (REF). A proposal such as a carbon tax would also be likely hinder development and industrialization in the developing world. 5. Theories and concepts in IPE For the purpose of this essay only the modern variants of the three central perspectives shall be analyzed, this is due to space restrictions and that it is not relevant to give an account of the development of the views in order to explain their impact on present day thinking regarding global environmental degradation. 5.1 Free Riding and the Tragedy of the Commons The tragedy of the commons is a model which demonstrates why actors acting rationally in their self interest will end up harming everyone’s interests in the long term and comes from the work of Hardin (1968). Hardin demonstrates how certain situations can produce no net gains for all when actors act rationally to increase their utility. He explains this by using a parable of a field shared by several herdsmen, a situation which worked happily for centuries with the expansion of the herdsmen limited by events such as war, pestilence etc.. Eventually a situation will arise where there is nothing to stop the common land being used to its maximum capacity. Each herdsman will see it rational to add another cow as it will add to his utility. Each herdsman will gain greatly from having another cow, but will only be slightly affected by the decrease in space on the common. As each actor is rational they will keep adding more and more cows, thinking they are not harming the commo n and only bearing a fraction of the cost of damage to the common. When common is full however, and all the grass eaten then all will lose at once (Hardin 1968:1243). Although Hardin was talking about population growth the same model fits well to describe attempts to find a political and economic solution to the problems of global environmental degradation. Free riding is the situation whereby contributors to the public good, in this case preventing global warming, are unable to ensure that those benefiting from the public good are actually contributing and not just relying upon the work of others (Coneybear 1984:6). This is a particularly important problem in relation to economic matters such as global warming, where if many states were to adopt measures that were beneficial to the environment, but harmful to their economies then they would be at a significant economic disadvantage to those states which did not do so. Free riding would be easier with global warming measures due to the wide range of ODS that industries use, in comparison to ozone measures which are much more easily monitored. 5.2 The mercantilist perspective Mercantilism sees economic practice as part of a states national security, strong economies are necessary in order to strengthen a state militarily (Woods 2001:285). Mercantilism is related to realism in International Relations Theory and shares many of the same assumptions, such as the primacy of the state and viewing the international arena as anarchical (Gilpin 1987:31). States should act in economic ways that benefit them directly, and see the world in zero-sum terms. This method of thinking would claim that there is no logical reason for states to attempt to do anything about global warming, especially considering the economic costs involved, unless there is a direct threat to a states’ security, as was believed to be the case with the US and ozone depletion (Parson 1995:69) Mercantilist thinking is partly evident in the US’ rejection of the Kyoto protocol. The current Bush administration has pursued many mercantilist projects since coming to power, pandering to big industry by, against all ideals of neoliberal free trade, placing tariffs on imports in which the US is not competitive, for example on clothing (Rockwell 2003). There is a strong movement in the US against joining the Protocol or any future regime along the same lines due to the belief that it would harm the US economy (Beder et al 1997). The US Energy Information administration estimated that implicating the Kyoto Protocol would cost the US economy a minimum of $283bn and a maximum of (EIA 2002) out of a GDP of $10.4trillion (CIA 2003). This is the main argument against why the US will not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. Lobbying of the Bush administration by large polluting industries, of which the biggest donator was the now collapsed energy concern Enron (Weinberg 2003), prevente d the Protocol being ratified in the US senate. The Senate refused to ratify any treaty which did not include a demand that developing states reduce their emissions as well, rather than the scaled proposals (Molitor 1999:225). This has been seen by some commentators as the US trying to secure its own position as the leading world economy by restricting the development of the undeveloped and developing world. Bello (2003) argues that China was the principal target of this thinking as its rapidly expanding economy poses a threat to US economic domination. If the US had its greenhouse gas emissions restricted it would arguably find itself in a weaker economic position than China. Although mercantilist thinking is becoming an increasing part of US economic policy (Bello 2003), see for example the banana and steel wars with the EU, it will only serve to undermine the US’ own strength in the long run. Hegemonic stability theory, based on the work of Gramsci, claims that when other states start to perceive the hegemon’s actions as self-serving and against their own political and economic interests, the whole system will be weakened (Gilpin 1987:73). Hegemonic states need an ideological consensus for support, military strength is not enough. The US under Bush has clearly lost a lot of goodwill even from its allies in the EU over following mercantilist thinking, both in respect to trade and the environment (Shwarz 2001). 5.3 The neoliberal perspective Neoliberalism is regarded today as the basis of the global economy, the so-called Washington Consensus with its key institutions of the WTO, IMF and the World Bank (Cox 2001:120).Those adopting the neoliberal position for political economy are also likely to reject any form of attempting to solve the problem of greenhouse gas emission via taxation. Neoliberalism’s strong belief in the free-market economy and unregulated trade makes it hard to justify from the perspective any intervention in the market (Gilpin 1987:27). Neoliberalism also claims that politics should be separated from economics as much as possible, however global warming is clearly a situation that requires both a political and economic solution. Cleaver describes neoliberalism as â€Å"both an ideology and a strategy† (1997), meaning that it provides both the means and the ends of the global economy. Neoliberal thought regards global warming, like any other crisis to markets, as something that will be stabilized by the â€Å"invisible hand†, claiming that intervention by states will result in market inefficiency and will hinder (Beder 2001:129). Neoliberals believe that the solution to global warming either lies in a partnership between business and governments (Cleaver 1997) or that it lies in letting a free market devise its own solution as aforementioned (Beder 2001:129) for example as happened with the regime on ODS. Another proposed idea is the distribution of rights to areas that were previously considered global commons, such as the atmosphere in the belief that this will create a market for scarce resources, making them hugely expensive and therefore morel likely to be valued (ibid.p131) Some have argued that the implementation of the Kyoto protocol by states will benefit their internal economy as energy companies compete for green investment and are stimulated to develop new green technology (Valentine 2002). If the Protocol was enacted on a global level then states would compete to develop green technology in order to encourage business to invest. It is possible that under this situation the US could emerge a winner as it has the initial capital and technology which to invest in alternative technologies. 5.4 The Marxist perspective Marxist political economy has developed greatly since first put forward by Marx and Engles in the nineteenth century (Gilpin1987:34) and now takes many different forms. All forms of Marxism share in common some basic tenets, however only those relating to political economy will be considered here. The first is that history is shaped by the changing nature of economic production, the second that the capitalist mode of production and its future are governed by a series of economic laws (Gilpin 1987:35). Today Marxism has very little impact in the policy arena and has largely been relegated to academic studies. However Marxist views on the nature of capitalism are still relevant to the study of political economy. Marx saw the industrial revolution in Europe as based on the systematic exploitation of the working classes, today globalization can be seen as based on the principal only this time based on the exploitation of the developing world (Edwards-Jones et al 2000:16). Global environmental degradation is seen by today’s neo-Marxists as due to the nature of global capitalism, which will always aim to seek short term profitability and exploitation from the natural as well as human environment, with little thought for the long term consequences (ibid. p17). However one irony of Marxist thought is its belief that the natural environment is there to be exploited by science and technology, something that can be clearly seen in the former Soviet countries abysmal environmental record (ibid.) 6. Comparison of the two case studies The international regime to combat atmospheric release of ODS has been a resounding success as it has resulted in global production and consumption of ODS being reduced to 85% of what they were previous to the introduction of controls on them (Oberthur 2001:358). In comparison the Kyoto treaty lies largely in ruins, due mainly to pressure from business encouraging governments to refuse to ratify the treaty (Beder et al 1997). The final nail in the coffin has often been portrayed as the refusal of the Bush administration to ratify the treaty (Greenpeace 2001). However, it is arguable that the treaty had already been â€Å"killed† before then by others, such as France (Murray 2003). Environmental concerns are often seen by politicians and governments as less important than other issues, such as military security (Chalecki 2003). Despite attempts to redefine security, environmental issues have not made it high onto the agenda of many states, as such there is little political demand in government circles for states to act immediately, for example a selection of surveys of the US public from 2003-2004 show very little demand for political action on the environment (Polling Report 2004). 6.1 Economic comparison The economics of control of ODS were largely stacked in favour of banning them, especially for the US (DeCanio 2003:300). In 1987 the US chemical company Du Pont invented CFC substitutes over which it would have a production monopoly and would be able to dominate the market gap left by ceasing production of CFCs (Thomas 1992:225). Any treaty on ODS would have given the US an economic advantage as the export of CFCs could provide a lucrative income. The US stood to benefit enormously from the Montreal Protocol, even to the extent that it would have been economically viable for the US to adopt the entire cost of phasing out CFCs globally (Parson 1995:69). The US stood to gain an estimated $6.4 trillion by implementing the Montreal Protocol, mainly due to avoiding cancer deaths (ibid.). However, although US support was vital to the establishment of the international regime, it was not the sole cause and ozone depletion would not have been solved by a unilateral approach. In additio n to gains the US economy would benefit from as its assumed position as the main supplier of CFC substitutes (Thomas 1992:225) it was also attributable to the oligpolistic nature of CFC production, which was concentrated in the hands of just a few TNCs (Greer Singh 2000), for example DuPont controlled 25% of the global market (Thomas 1992:219). TNCs also eventually supported the campaign to legislate CFC production, knowing that they stood to gain (Greene 2001:402) graph showing reduction This is all a huge contrast to the economics of the Kyoto agreement. Figure 3 shows how there has been no significant decline in greenhouse gas output despite the attempts. To reach the targets of greenhouse gas reduction would require most developed states to restructure their entire economies away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energies. Although scientific evidence for global warming is strong, it is still far from irrefutable in the way ozone depletion is (cf. Lomborg 1998). There are many different models of what is likely to happen with huge differences in the amount, or in some cases lack of, global warming that will occur (Beckerman 1992:258). There is also no consensus on the role of â€Å"carbon sinks† such as forests and the oceans which it is argued may keep global warming in equilibrium due to absorbing CO2, the main greenhouse gas. This has allowed corporations and business concerns of all sizes the opportunity to claim that the science behind glob al warming is flawed and that the problem is not real (Beder et al 1997). Businesses in all developed states launched a protracted lobbying campaign against legislative bodies, aiming at getting the Protocol blocked. In the US a multitude of business interest groups were formed, with one spending  £10million on TV advertising alone to persuade the public that Kyoto would cost jobs and money (ibid.). The biggest hindrance to any solution to global warming is the reluctance of the US to get involved in any treaty that may harm their economy, despite accounting for 25% of global greenhouse gas output in 2003 yet with only 4.6% of the global population (NEF 2003:6). Figure 4 shows how the industrialized world accounts for more than a third of all greenhouse gas emissions, with half of that due to the US alone. In addition, many neoliberal think-tanks with vested interests, such as funding from environmentally harming industries have worked hard at producing academic evidence to pr ove the hugely negative impact that any treaty on global warming would have, both theoretically and economically (Beder 2001). 6.3 Game Theory analysis The model of situation the international community and states find themselves in is also different with each of the treaties. The Montreal Protocol can be seen as a â€Å"privilege† type game, where the benefits to each actor outweigh the costs (Toke 2000:51). The Montreal Protocol allowed every state to â€Å"win†; those in the developing world received the finance to move away from CFC production so it cost them very little. The US also gained due to increasing its market share and everyone gained by the ozone layer being saved. In contrast global warming is seen as a classic prisoners’ dilemma, where the stakes are zero-sum and the only positive outcome depends on the cooperation of all involved and an absence free-riding (Toke 2000:51). Another issue lies in the different construction of the two regimes. Although the UNFCCC regime was based upon the structure of the WTO, it lacked primary rules that were agreed on by all participant states (Faure Lefevre 1999:144). Primary rules are those which define the behaviour of each member state and affect how much behaviour must change on joining the regime. This can account for why the UNFCCC has been less successful than the Montreal Protocol. The goals of the Montreal Protocol required only a limited number of changes in state behaviour, whereas the UNFCCC would require large scale changes by both industry and individuals (ibid.) 6.4 The global economic context Another significant problem with global warming regimes is the development aspect (Beckerman 1992:255). While countries in the developed world were able to finance the replacement of ODS in developing states through the MLF, to do so with global warming would be impossible due to the huge costs involved. Unlike trade and economic agreements, environmental ones are rarely legally binding and often amount to being voluntary (NEF 2003:4), as such there is no international adjudicator for solving disputes or enforcement in the manner of the WTO. The NEF 2003 report suggests that states wishing to achieve the goals of the Kyoto Protocol place trade barriers and import taxes on states failing to comply with the Protocol, however this largely goes against the dominant neoliberal principal of free trade. The World Bank has a Climate Change department which aims to provide the framework for a global carbon emission trading system (Carbon Finance 2004) however this system has not yet fully come into force. 7. Conclusion From the above evidence I would argue that based on current events a universal to global warming is unlikely to happen at any point in the near future. The two case studies provide good models of how global issues of environmental degradation can be solved or what may prevent them being solved. Problems or advantages lie in the economics of the problem, the science or technology involved with the problem, the form of the decision making process and issues concerning development all contribute to the likely success or failure of international environmental regimes. The most likely solution is one which embraces neoliberal ideology and provides an acceptable economic solution to all states or a shift in global priorities brought about by apparent and conclusive effects of global warming. The ideas outline in the NEF 2003 document may go someway to providing a solution if adopted on a global level. 8. Bibliography 8.1 Books Buzan, B. et al (1998) Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Lynne Rienner: Colorado, US) Edwards-Jones, G. et al (2000) Ecological Economics: An Introduction (Blackwell Science: Oxford) Gilpin, R. (1987) The Political Economy of International Relations (Princeton University Press) Hardy, J. (2003) Climate Change: Causes, Effects, and Solutions (Wiley: London) Held, D. et al (2000) Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Polity Press: London) Lomborg, B. (1998) The Skeptical Environmentalist (Cambridge University Press) Sjà ¶stedt, G. (1993) International Environmental Negotiations (Sage) Thomas, C. (1992) The Environment in International Relations (Royal Institute of International Affairs) Toke, D. (2000) Green Politics and Neoliberalism (Macmillan: Basingstoke) 8.2 Edited Books Beckerman, W. (1992) â€Å"Global Warming and Economic Action† in Hurrel, A. Kingsbury, B. eds. The International Politics of the Environment (Clarendon Press: Oxford) Blackmore, R. (1996) â€Å"Damage to the ozone layer† in Blackmore, R. Reddish, A. Global Environmental Issues (Hodder Stoughton) Faure, M. Lefevere, J. (1999) â€Å"Compliance with International Environmental Agreements† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Greene, O. (2001) â€Å"Environmental Issues† in Baylis, J. Smith, S. eds. The Globalization of World Politics (Oxford University Press: Oxford) Molitor, M. (1999) â€Å"The United Nations Climate Change Agreements† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Paarlberg, R. (1999) â€Å"Lapsed Leadership: US International Environmental Policy Since Rio in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Parson, E. (1995) â€Å"Protecting the Ozone Layer† in Hass, P. et al eds. Institutions for the Earth (1995) (MIT Press: London) Ross, S. Blackmore R. (1996) â€Å"Atmospheres and climate change† in Blackmore, R. Reddish, A. eds. Global Environmental Issues (Hodder Stoughton) Vig, N. (1999) â€Å"Introduction† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Woods, N. (2001) â€Å"International Political Economy in an age of globalization† in Baylis, J. Smith, S. eds. The Globalization of World Politics (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 8.3 Journal Articles Beder, S. (2001) â€Å"Neoliberal Think Tanks and Free Market Environmentalism† Environmental Politics Vol.10:pp128-133 Conybeare, J. (1984) â€Å"Public Goods, Prisoners Dilemmas and the International Political Economy† International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28:1:pp. 5-22. DeCanio, S. (2003) â€Å"Economic Analysis, Environmental Policy, and Intergenerational Justice in the Reagan Administration† International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law Economics Vol.3:pp299-321 Hardin, G. (1968) â€Å"The Tragedy of the Commons† Science Vol.164:pp1243-1248 Oberthà ¼r, S. (2001) â€Å"Linkages between the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols† International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law Economics Vol.1:pp357-377 8.4 Reports ITE (1997) â€Å"Scientific Report of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology 1997-98† ceh.ac.uk/products_services/publications/online/annual/97-98/ (Institute of Terrestrial Ecology) UNEP (2002) â€Å"Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002† unep.org/ozone/sap2002.shtml retrieved 15/3/04 (United Nations Environment Program) 8.5 Online Sources Bello, W. (2003) â€Å"The Crisis of the Globalist Project and the New Economics of George W. Bush† globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/2003/0710bello.htm (Global Policy Forum) Retrieved 14/3/03 Carbon Finance (2004) â€Å"Carbon Finance Products of the World Bank† http://carbonfinance.org/ (Carbon Finance at the World Bank) Retrieved 20/3/04 Chalecki, E. (2003) â€Å"Environmental Security: A Case Study of Climate Change† pacinst.org/environment_and_security/env_security_and_climate change.pdf (Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security) Retrieved 20/3/04 CIA (2002) â€Å"United States of America† cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html (CIA World Factbook 2003) Retrieved 20/3/04 Cleaver, H. (1997) Nature, Neoliberalism and Sustainable Development: Between Charybdis Scylla?† eco.utexas.edu/Homepages/Faculty/Cleaver/port.html Retrieved 18/3/04 FOE (2004) â€Å"Who We Are† foe.org/about/whoweare.html (Friends of the Earth) Retrieved 20/3/04 Fraser, A. (2003) ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadGreenhouse.html Retrieved 1/3/04 Gow Pidwiny http://royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mpidwirn/atmosphereandclimate/greenhouse.html Retrieved 29/3/04 Greenpeace (2001) â€Å"The Climate Cannot Wait for Bush† http://archive.greenpeace.org/climate/climatecountdown/documents /clicantwait.pdf Retrieved 18/3/04 Greenpeace (2004) â€Å"About Us† greenpeace.org/international_en/aboutus Retrieved 20/3/04 Greer, J. Singh, K. (2000) â€Å"A Brief History of Transnational Corporations† globalpolicy.org/socecon/tncs/historytncs.htm#bk2_ft22 (Global Policy Forum) Retrieved 20/3/04 Murray, I. (2003) â€Å"Who Killed Kyoto?† techcentralstation.com/052003M.html (TechCentral Station) retrieved 16/3/04 NEF (2003) â€Å"Free Riding on the Climate† neweconomics.org/gen/z_sys_PublicationDetail.aspx?pid=167 (New Economics Foundation) Retrieved 15/3/04 Pakerr, L. (2002) â€Å"Global Climate Change: Market-Based Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gases† policyalmanac.org/environment/archive/crs_climate_change_market.shtml (Almanac of Policy Issues) retrieved 12/3/04 Rockwell, L. (2003) â€Å"Mercantilism USA† mises.org/fullstory.asp?control=1283 (Ludwig von Mises Institute) retrieved 13/3/04 Schwarz, P. (2001) â€Å"Transatlantic relations enter an ice age† wsws.org/articles/2001/apr2001/eur-a06.shtml (World Socialist Website) retrieved 14/3/04 UNEP (2003) â€Å"Chemicals Phase Out Schedules† unep.org/ozone/Public_Information/4Aiv_PublicInfo_Facts_che micals.asp retrieved 15/3/04 8.6 Newspaper Articles Beder, S. et al (1997) â€Å"Who Killed Kyoto?† The Guardian, 29th October 1997, p. 4 Hunt, T. (2004) â€Å"Industrial Evolution† The Guardian, 12th January 2004-03-21 guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1120734,00.html Research Papers on The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer - Earth Science EssayRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPETSTEL analysis of IndiaDefinition of Export QuotasBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfGenetic EngineeringAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductThe Project Managment Office SystemEffects of Television Violence on Children

Main Elements of Self Determination Theory Case Study

Main Elements of Self Determination Theory - Case Study Example This implies that SDT focuses on self-motivated and self-determined decisions. Since its inception in the 1970s, SDT has evolved to become a crucial element of social psychology based on empirical research. As mentioned, SDT is mainly anchored on intrinsic motivation. This refers to the need to partake in an activity due to the activity’s satisfactory value. Thus, this need is contrary to extrinsic motivation which refers to the engagement in a given activity in order to fulfill certain goals or obligations. Therefore, SDT can be said to be centered on the following crucial elements: Â  As mentioned, intrinsic motivation refers to the naturally occurring motivation in the event of engaging in certain occurrences (Deci and Ryan, 2005: 49). Therefore, this motivation is highly associated with social development. Cognitive evaluation is a necessary tool in the assessment of the degree of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation may, thus, be cultivated through the employment of social context events such as rewarding systems. Therefore, intrinsic motivation must be backed by the necessary environment in order to result in the desired self-cultivated drive (Ryan and Deci, 2010: 68). Â  Contrary to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation is based on external influence. However, external motivations may also be internalized through various processes, thus, contributing significantly to social development. Extrinsic motivation, thus, forms a crucial element of SDT. Extrinsically motivated behaviors may take various forms. However, their integration into an individual’s lives provides the required platform for self-motivation. Â  

Manageing Homeland Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Manageing Homeland Security - Essay Example terrorism provokes deep fear and insecurity -- more than other forms of violence. Terrorists strike innocent civilians, often randomly, and without warning. We think we can protect ourselves against other forms of violence, but we feel defenseless against terrorists. ..Terrorists know this, and they seek to use intimidation to impose their political or other agendas. Killing is only a means to that end. By creating fear and panic, terrorists try to extort concessions or to weaken and discredit governments by showing they are unable to protect their citizens. Thus, emergency management is the coordination of a city-wide cooperative involvement to ensure the entire safety of that community. Such events that could arise that this committee would be called upon would be natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. and other disasters such as terrorism as has been mentioned prior. As the Emergency As the Emergency Management Coordinator it is my job to activate the necessary mobile force that would generate the appropriate level of action for when these events occur. As such I am in charge of decided a plan of action such as emergency evacuations of houses for when a natural disaster has been proclaimed through the national weather service. I would have to use the aid of the committee and local police force to aid in making sure the entire community is safe and re-located in enough time to prevent injury or death. As the Emergency Management Coordinator it is necessary to wake the entire community aware of evacuation procedures, where to go, where to relocate, and how to get in touch with family members who may have become separated from each other. A post will be set up in the evacuation area, which will usually be in a large arena in the next city in case of a flood, or hurricane and there will be several posts in town where people can go in case of a tornado or earthquake to receive temporary shelter, food, and to locate their family. There is a lot involved in being an Emergency Management Coordinator, but with the cooperation of the community, presenting the facts of where to go when an emergency occurs, the movement of an entire city prior to such a catastrophe should not be too difficult. The temporary shelters will be in locations such as area YMCAs, malls, high schools, and other large buildings that will be commandeered during this time. Food will be provided through such agencies as Red Cross and other donations until such a time as rebuilding and moving back into the area will occur. As the Emergency Management Coordinator it is my job to act as swiftly as possible to ensure the safety of the lives in this community and I will do this job with the utmost of my ability. Question Two For the modern thinkers, the most rational reason behind war is "patriotism".1 Thus, in order to coincide the active and willing participation of the hospitals, the police, and the fire department a mutual understanding of their pulled

Early Medical Practices in the Neolithic Period Research Proposal

Early Medical Practices in the Neolithic Period - Research Proposal Example The objectives are to conduct a visual survey and then a targeted analysis looking for narcotic or other chemical traces, and to interpret the remains holistically including any new evidence found. Literature review There is a very extensive literature on the burial practices of Neolithic peoples, (Thomas, 1999) and indeed excavations of burial sites, especially in Egypt but also across Europe and in the Americas provide the largest sources of human bone material for analysis. The form of deposition human remains is, however, not without its problems because the bones are subjected to various processes ranging from burning, to de-fleshing, selected preservation of only parts of the body, and mummification. Various kinds of positioning in different types of ground leave traces on the bones which add layers of complication to scientific analysis. Incomplete samples survive, with uneven distribution due to geological rather than historical variation, which makes it difficult to form a c omplete picture. There are some Neolithic bone samples which show evidence of healing, but it is not certain that this is a result of medical intervention. The large number of trephined skulls found in Europe in Neolithic deposits, and somewhat later also in Peru, is however, incontrovertible evidence of medical activity (Ackerknecht, 1968, p. 8). McKenzie (1936, p. 895) theorizes that the purpose of scraping a hole in the skull was to cure giddiness or epilepsy but it is unclear what evidence can be drawn to point to this conclusion, other than that no trauma is evident in the bones, which could otherwise explain the hole. The Peruvian examples do show evidence of... This study is a great example of an investigation into Neolithic Doctoring practices via visual and chemical analysis. The Neolithic period from between 4000 and 2000 BC is widely recognised as being pivotal in human history because it marks the time when large populations of people shifted from a nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a more settled existence dependent on agriculture as a major food source. Evidence for this has been gathered from several centuries of work in the field of archaeology. Often, however, the human artifacts do not provide complete answers to exploratory research questions, and so holistic techniques from the field of anthropology can be used to make sense of supplement sparse findings. The aim of the study is to explore the evidence in Neolithic skeletal remains in order to illuminate medical practices of this period. The majority of the material available from the Neolithic period consists of skeletal remains, and some work has been done on dental evidence and diet (Lubell et al., 1994). A combination of thorough visual examination and modern GC-MS testing of the bone material for chemical elements offers a new angle on medical practices because it will reveal both healing processes at work, and any potential use of medicinal narcotics. These testing techniques have been used on organic residues of 958 British prehistoric pots to trace dairy material and a similar method applied to Neolithic bone may bring to light significant information on medical practices of that time.

See order instructions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

See order instructions - Essay Example Within Delaware, alimony is usually not granted in marriages of less than a decade. In Kansas, spousal support awards cannot exceed 10 years. In Utah, on the other hand, the duration of spousal support cannot go beyond the duration of the marriage (Bureau of the Census 5). In Mississippi, Maine, as well as Tennessee, alimony is granted in civil unions or marriages of one to two decades and the length is half the duration of the marriage barring explanatory circumstances. Other states, such as California, Massachusetts, Nevada, as well as New York, offer relatively blurred statutes, which only list the "factors" judges are supposed to consider when deciding alimony. These factors include: gender of the recipient, as well as health of the parties. According to gender, females are more likely to be offered alimony than males as, historically, males made more earnings than females. Poor health also goes towards the need (Bureau of the Census 3). Poor health is a potential sign of incapacity to sustain oneself. Hence, the courts do not desire to leave one party impoverished. Other factors are also relative income of the parties, age of the spouses at the time of break up, and future financial prospects of the spouses. According to relative income, both parties have the right to live according the life they were habituated. Also, with regards to age, a youthful couple will get short periods of alimony since they still have a chance to rebuild their

Theatre Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Theatre - Essay Example The situation is further complicated by Catherine’s successful and bossy sister Claire (Hope Davis). As Gwyneth Paltrow who played Catherine in the stage version of this play, so her portrayal of Catherine with her volatile moods and her struggle to gain confidence in her talent is very convincing and realistic. The film is more of a heavy drama that requires a rapt attention and concentration on the part of the audience. Madden’s approach towards costume and set is not that deft. He fails to exploit the scattered settings at Robert’s home, with bits of paper spread around, and unattended dirty dishes, to throw light on the scattered and disturbed lives of the characters in the story. Still, there are many meaningful scenes in the story that bring out the darkly comical mindset of the characters. Overall Proof failed to achieve that depth and meaning on the screen, that it successfully approached in its stage version.

See order instructions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

See order instructions - Essay Example Within Delaware, alimony is usually not granted in marriages of less than a decade. In Kansas, spousal support awards cannot exceed 10 years. In Utah, on the other hand, the duration of spousal support cannot go beyond the duration of the marriage (Bureau of the Census 5). In Mississippi, Maine, as well as Tennessee, alimony is granted in civil unions or marriages of one to two decades and the length is half the duration of the marriage barring explanatory circumstances. Other states, such as California, Massachusetts, Nevada, as well as New York, offer relatively blurred statutes, which only list the "factors" judges are supposed to consider when deciding alimony. These factors include: gender of the recipient, as well as health of the parties. According to gender, females are more likely to be offered alimony than males as, historically, males made more earnings than females. Poor health also goes towards the need (Bureau of the Census 3). Poor health is a potential sign of incapacity to sustain oneself. Hence, the courts do not desire to leave one party impoverished. Other factors are also relative income of the parties, age of the spouses at the time of break up, and future financial prospects of the spouses. According to relative income, both parties have the right to live according the life they were habituated. Also, with regards to age, a youthful couple will get short periods of alimony since they still have a chance to rebuild their

Issues in global economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Issues in global economy - Essay Example In turn, more economic growth was observed and many new jobs were created. In other words, new companies, business organisations and enterprises joined the arena that not only resulted in healthy economic growth but also in stiff competition among existing entities. Businesses, therefore, started making innovations and developments in their production process and finished products so that they could differentiate their produce from the rivals in the same industry. Nevertheless, this competition benefited people in a way that they now had more variety of products at their disposal. The emergence of media, especially after popularity of ‘Penny Press’ was another reason that enhanced the knowledge of people about their surroundings while it also enhanced the flow of information. Businesses started understanding the importance of advertising, branding, research and marketing intelligence in order to ensure their survival, growth and sustainability. Also, they started producing highly sophisticated and modern machinery to speed up their operation and improve productivity. The media, especially newspapers, has also become popular by the end of 19th century. Finally, important inventions such as advent of Television and Internet in the 290th century helped introducing the world with an entirely new concept of globalisation that talks about international markets, international institutions (banks, universities, research centres and others etc.), global politics, justice, global culture etc. In short, people are closely knitted after recent advancements i n internet and communication media and the subsequent improvements in circulation and sharing of information among people from different communities and geographic regions. The relationships among people and their frequent communication have also created enormous business opportunities after emergence of global markets that in turn have increased global trade (through imports and exports).

Observing Toddlers Essay Example for Free

Observing Toddlers Essay Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are a number of places where toddlers could be observed unobtrusively—at the park, the playground, the mall, and the daycare center. For the purpose of this study, however, I chose to go to the park and observe parents and their toddlers play together. This way, I could easily observe unobtrusively as people would think I was simply there to write or to write down my thoughts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another benefit that the park has to offer is the lack of formal structures and relationships such as those found at daycare centers. At the park, parents and toddlers could interact easily and in a relax manner. That way, the true nature of the relationship between the parents and the toddlers will be easily observed and analyzed and the understanding of the interactions between parents and children will be better understood. This paper then seeks to look at such a relationship by presenting direct observations from families and toddlers that visit the park in our community. I had a small notebook with me and it is where I wrote down my observations, as well as the communication that went on between the parents and the children.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The toddlers that I observed were approximately between 16 to 30 months old and appeared to be pampered by care by their parents. One the toddlers belong to an Asian-American racial stock while the other one to an American family. Although the parents brought strollers with them, the toddlers were walking and occasionally carried by their parents. Both of the families of the toddlers seem to belong to the middle class. Notably, the second toddler belongs to a mother without a father. Although the author could not exactly know whether she is a single parent or not, at least based on the observation at the park, the mother does not have any other company in visiting the park.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both toddlers appear to be enamored with their surroundings. They do notice the colors in the park and usually exclaim in delight when they see a butterfly or a bird. Apparently, they are already starting to recognize some of the features of the environment and their understanding of what they are is already being formed in the minds of the young kids. Toddler 1 The first toddler I observed is male. He displayed curiosity in his surroundings. While they were walking in the park, to the way where the family will sit down for an afternoon snack, the toddler was picking up sticks and leaves on the ground. He raised them to his eyes and offered them to his parents. The mother accepted the offer from the toddler and said that it was a leaf. She explained further that the leaf grows on the branch, which the toddler dutifully picked up and offered to her mother again. When the mother pronounced â€Å"leaf† and â€Å"branch†, the toddler also spoke up and attempted to pronounce the same words. A child is very much curious and interested in his surroundings. As part of his cognitive development, he notices the shapes, colors, and different sensations and wonders he encounter in his world. Even at such a young age, he is also being initiated into the process of socialization where he learns the views of his parents and of the larger society where he is located (Turner, 1991). The child, according to Piaget’s theory actively uses his senses to explore his environment and learn about them. Through the use of his senses, he is able to discern relationships among the actions he take and the behavior of the objects that he is viewing (Turner, 1991). Both the component of nature and nurture are at work in this seemingly simple process that the child is going through. He uses his eyes, his ears, his nose, and his whole body to discover the world and learn how it works. His efforts, because they are yet insufficient, are supplemented by his parents, more particularly by his mother, who tells him the names of objects and how they are being referred to in the world. Through the explanation of the mother about the nature of the relationship between leaves and branches, the child is then able to look at the relationship of different objects in his environment albeit in an incomplete fashion. The explanation of the mother regarding the relationship of leaves and branches may not be sufficient for the child to understand the relationship because most of the knowledge of a child advances through his actions and his interpretation about the consequences of the actions he make (Franz White, 1985). Notably, the toddler was now engaging in eye-to-eye contact with his parents and occasionally asks them for what he wants. His father brought out a ball that the toddler apparently loved playing with. The father and the child started playing with the ball—they played catch, and sometimes they would race together to get the ball first. The toddler was delighted with such play with his father. Although this is the case, the child would also look at his mother and he asked her to come and join them. This is consistent with the theory of Erikson, which holds that the child’s relationship with his mother is perhaps the most important one during this stage of development (Franz White, 1985). The child continued to play with the ball and when he saw other children in the park, he also went to them and offered to play the ball with them. Apparently, toddler one has good socialization skills to the point that he can mingle with other kids even when his parents are around. This points to the good relationship that the child is enjoying with his parents. Both his parents encouraged him to play with other children and watched him with other kids. True enough, when the child has strong relationships with his parents, he tends to be more socially responsive and socially amiable. In accordance with Psychosocial theorists, the child is displaying good emotional and social skills because his own relationship with his parents are also good and secure. Otherwise, he might become a recluse and refuse the company of people (Charlesworth, 2003). When Toddler one was playing ball with another child, there was an instance in which the other child managed to grab the ball more quickly than toddler one, so what he did was to forcibly claim the ball from his playmate and withheld it from the latter. Through this, the other child looked as if he was about to cry. It is at this moment that the mother of Toddler one intervened. The mother reasoned out firmly with the toddler in regards to sharing toys so that others would also learn how to share. The tone of the mother appeared to be negotiating instead of imposing. This display of authority on the part of the mother is remarkable and shows the secure connection between her and the child (Charlesworth, 2003). Toddler Two When I felt that I have sufficiently observed toddler one, I decided to turn my attention to another toddler playing with a dog not very far from the first toddler. The only companion of the toddler in the park is his mother and their Labrador. I had the impression, although this is difficult to verify, that the mother was a single parent. The mother was silently looking after her child who was playing with the Labrador. Apart from the toy truck and the Frisbee that the child had, there were no other toys that the mother had for the child. The mother appeared to be preoccupied with her own thoughts. When toddler was not busy with his toy truck, he would play with the Frisbee and the dogs with the strength and the capability that he has. The dog seems to act as a guard to the toddler. He does not socialize with other kids very much and he appears content to play by himself. The toddler, it seems is spending most of the time by himself. Although at first glance, this may seem to be a display of autonomy, yet in closer examination of the child, he does not enjoy the benefits that interaction with other kids and with his parent brings. These circumstances will therefore bring forth negative consequences in the development of the social skills of the child and he might find it difficult to relate with other people when he grows up (Keenan, 2002). When the child attempts to play farther from his mother, the latter would come after him and tell him not to move around too much. The mother actually uses her authority over the child to forbid him from going somewhere else. Apparently, the mother wants to keep the child in her sight most of the time. This kind of attitude might breed negative feelings in the child and will contribute to the insecurity of their relationship. Since the relationship of the child with his mother is of utmost importance (Charlesworth, 2003), then his cognitive, emotional and social development will suffer as a consequence. The child also develops a kind of mistrust in the outside world and he will not view the outside world as a safe place. Instead, he might develop the attitude that he always needs his mother to look after him. Erikson warned against this over-protectiveness of parents as it prohibits children to explore and become curious of their environment. Hence, instead of developing self-confidence and self-esteem, toddler two will instead feel shame and doubt (Franz White, 1985). Toddler two cried when his mother forbade him to wander into the park. When the child cried, the mother responded by being firmer and she almost shouted to toddler two to stop. Instead of stopping, however, toddler cried even louder and displayed tantrums. At this time, the mother punished toddler two by spanking him three times. After several minutes, toddler two stopped crying and remained where he was instead. This display of authority may become inimical to the overall development of the child over the long run as the initiative and the natural curiosity of the child will be dampened and what he will remember most will be the fear associated with the parent’s discipline (Charlesworth, 2003). Toddler two recovered from the spanking after several minutes by turning his attention to the dog and his Frisbee. By distracting himself, he forgot about the incident and started to enjoy himself again. His mother, however, still issued a warning for him â€Å"not to move out of her sight.† According to Erikson, if the urge of the child to explore is removed, then the result would be a lower level of self-esteem on the part of the child (Franz White, 1985). Toddler two is very much attached to her mother, however, he is not sufficiently developing autonomy. Through the reprimands and the stern warnings of his mother, he becomes dependent on his mother and unable to explore his environment and his surroundings. Over the course of time as he discovers the world further, he may not have sufficient curiosity and initiative to move away from the familiar and instead, he would keep in sight of whoever is looking after him. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Observing the two toddlers was a good experience for me. It was as if the concepts and theories discussed by Piaget and Erikson were coming to life. Indeed the role of the parents is very crucial in ensuring that a child receives the appropriate socialization and training even while he is young. The strength of the attachment of a child with his parents is very important for him to develop the necessary skills for socialization and in relating with others in his environment. If the relationship of a child with his parents is good as demonstrated by the first toddler I observed, then the child will greatly benefit from it. If, however, the nature of the relationship borders on the dysfunctional, then the socialization skills of the child will be negatively affected. As he grows up, he will have struggles in relating with different kinds of people in his environment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By observing toddlers, numerous lessons can be gleaned and the nature of the relationship between child and parents will be assessed. Accordingly, intervention strategies could be arrived at so that the child will not suffer needlessly. Furthermore, parents, and everyone dealing with children, should be sensitive to the different levels of development of the child as demonstrated by Piaget and Erikson. By doing so, perhaps the manner of bringing up of children will be better and over the long run, the society will become a better one because of the good rearing of the children. Reference Charlesworth, R. (2003). Understanding Child Development: For Adults Who Work With Young Children. New York: Thomson Delmar Learning. Franz, C. E. White, K. M. (1985). Individuation and attachment in personality development: Extending Eriksons theory. Journal of Personality, 53 (2), 224-256. Keenan, T. (2002). An Introduction to Child Development. London: Sage Publications. Turner, P. J. (1991). Relations between Attachment, Gender, and Behavior with Peers in Preschool. Child Development, 62 (6), 1475-1488.